THE ARABS AND ISLAM
In Pre-Islamic times the Arabs had established kingdoms and pefly states not only in the Arabian Peninsula but in Syria and fraq as well. In particular they founded cities in the desert which served as staging posts and garrisons for the caravans which used the desert routes for trade. Emerging during the Parthian, and Sassanian-Byzantine periods, these trade establishments soon grew into major sties with strong fortifications and splendid buildings, and as a result of their positions on the trade routes which als served for military expeditions, they acquired great strategic importance during the perennial conflict between Roman and Parthian and between Byzantine and Sassanian in the Near East. The predominantly Arab inhabitants of these cities developed their own culture, which drew elements from the native, Persian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine civilizations and adapted them to their own tastes. Reference has already been made to some of these cities, such as Petra near Aqaba which was a centre for the Nabataean tribes but overrash in 109 A.D. by the Roman emperor Trajan. In Mesopotamia was the city of Hatra on the Wadi Tharthar between Tigris and Euphrates, which was the seat of the Arab dynasty founded by Nasru, including Sanatruq ‘King of the Arabs’, and fell before the Sassanians in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. A third city which emerged at this time was Palmyra, or Tadmor. in the Syrian Desert, whose most famous rulers were Oden thus and his widow Zenobia, who was taken captive by the Roman Emperor Aurelian in 272 A.D.
Other Arab tribes which played a significant role before the advent of Islam were the Ghassanids in the area of Wadi Hauran, south of Damascus, and the Mundhirs, who settled on the fringes of the desert in Iraq with their center at Hira, on the Euphrates and who included the Tannukh and Lakhanid tribes, the latter of which ruled until the Islamic conquest.
In 571 A.D. the prophet Muhammad bin Abdullah was born in the city of Meens In 622 A.D. he decided to move to Yathrib, and it is from this event. known as the Hijra (or ‘migration of the Prophet) that the Islamic era is dated. After this the Islamic armies spread out to the conquest of Sassanian and Byzantine territories in Syria and Iraq and in the time of Abu Bakr, the old friend and companion of the Prophet and the first Orthodox Caliph, the Islamic armies under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid en tered Iraq and conquered Hira (12 A.H./633 A.D. Thereafter the command of the Islamic armies in Iraq was assumed by Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, who came after al-Muthanna Ibn Harita ash-Shaibani, in the time of the second Orthodox Caliph Umar ibn al-Khal tab. Saad ibn Abi Waqqas led the armies against the Sassanian in the great battle of Qadisiyah, southwest of Kufah, in which the Sassanian were defeated and their general Rustam killed. There followed the capture of Ctesiphon (al-Madain), the Sassanian cap tal in Iraq (16 A.H./635 A.D.), and the death of Yazdegerd at the battle of Nihavend in Persia (651 A.D.) which brought to an end the Sassanian domination of Iraq.
Rashidun Caliphs (11-40 Α.Η./632-661 A.D.
The Muslim conquest of Iraq was completed during the period of the Orthdex of
Rashidun Caliphs, undefluence spread to neighboring were firmly established in the Rashtry and Islamic inde 7637 AD), lands in trag the Arats Counter the cities of Bars grew and became reno Kod near al-Hira 17 A these towns soon grew, entramirenowned centres of Islamic civilisation which Da lated eastwards to Iran, Central Asia, India.
The last of the four Caliphs was Ali ibn Abi Talib, who chose to live in Iraq (36 A.H./657 A.D.) and was murdered at Kufa in 40 A.H./661 A.D. The Iraqis lived wisely, in justice and equality With his eath the time of the Caliphs came to an end and was followed by the Umayyad .
Umayyad (41-132 A.H./661-750 A.D.)
especially in the cities of Kufa and Basra. The Umayyad caliph Abdul Malik ibn Marwan’s viceroy in Iraq, who was called al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ath-Thaqafi, founded the city of Wasit on the Tigris in about 83 A.H./703 A.D.
The incident of Karbala
The Battle of Karbala took place on Muharram 10, in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar(October 10, 680 AD)a in Karbala, in present-day Iraq.[6] The battle took place between a small group of supporters and relatives of Muhammad’s grandson, Husayn ibn Ali, and a larger military detachment from the forces of Yazid I, the Umayyad caliph.
When Muawiyah I died in 680, Husayn did not give allegiance to his son, Yazid I, who had been appointed as Umayyad caliph by Muawiyah; Husayn considered Yazid’s succession a breach of the Hasan–Muawiya treaty. The people of Kufa sent letters to Husayn, asking his help and pledging allegiance to him, but they later did not support him. As Husayn traveled towards Kufa, at a nearby place known as Karbala, his caravan was intercepted by Yazid I’s army led by Al-Hurr ibn Yazid al Tamimi. He was killed and beheaded in the Battle of Karbala by Shimr Ibn Thil-Jawshan, along with most of his family and companions, including Husayn’s six month old son, Ali al-Asghar, with the women and children taken as prisoners.The battle was followed by later uprisings namely, Ibn al-Zubayr, Tawwabin, and Mukhtar uprising which occurred years later.
Abbasid Caliphs (132-656 A.H./750-1258 A.D.)
The Abbasid Caliphate succeeded the Umayyad in Iraq, and was established by the Caliph Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah (132-136 A.H./750-754 A.D.), who was accorded the oath of allegiance (bay’ah) at Kufa. In a battle at the Greater Zab river he fought and defeated the Umayyad armies, and descendded from there on Wasit. Then As-Saffah led his forces against Damascus, the Umayyad capital, which he completely subdued. Back in Iraq, As-Saffah, felt insecure in the city of Kufa, and built himself a courtly residence near al-Anbar on the other side of the Euphrates. After him the Abbasid Caliphate en dured with 36 caliphs for 502 years, a period which is divided up for convenience into five phases, depending on the relationship of the caliph to the foreign powers who held secular authority.
Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (136-158 A.H./754-775 A.D.)
Was the second Abbasid caliph, the brother of As-Saffah, and by his firm rule and energetic administration he laid the foundations of the Caliphate’s later success. Over coming initial opposition from a strong opponent, Abu Muslim al-Khorasani, he is best remembered for the foundation of the city of Baghdad in 145 A.H./762 A.D. The first city was circular in form and hence known as the Round City (al-Madina al-Mudawwarah) and was officially given the name of Madinat as-Salam (The City of Peace). Within a short time Baghdad grew into an unrivalled centre of Islamic culture, and a seat of learning of paramount international importance, in particular during the reigns of the caliphs
mentioned below.
Al-Mahdi ibn al-Mansur ( 158-169 A.H./775-785 A.D.)
Who succeeded his father in the Caliphate, enjoyed a reign which was relatively Stable politically and administratively, apart, from some minor intrigues which-Hadi thwarted, and some campaigns against Byzantium. He was suceeded by his son Al-Hadi.
Harun ar-Rashid ibn al-Mahdi (170-193 A.H/786-809 A.D.J Was the most able and the most illustrious of all the Abbasid caliphs, and his name
a source of legend and story in East and West. He was a great patron of arts and sciences, and gave freely and generously to poets, artists, and scientists. The life of the court in his reign was of un paralleled brilliance, and the palaces of Baghdad and other cities were very luxurious In his reign belongs the spectacular story of the rise and fall of the Barmakid ministers. Apart from uprisings in distant territories which were easily put down, the only mill. tary event of his reign was his conflict with the Byzantines, in which he took the field in person. The story of his relations with Charlemagne, Emperor of France, is much recounted by Western authors, who describe the exchange of gifts and embassies between the two rulers. At Harun ar-Rashid’s death his son Al-Amin succeeded to the Caliphate, on the understanding that he would be followed by the second son Al-Ma’mun, However the brothers soon fell out, and the quarrel ended with the killing of Al-Amin, and Al-Ma’mun’s assumption of power.
During the period of rule, Imam Mousa al-Kadhim was killed
Musa al-Kazim died in 799 in the al-Sindi ibn Shahiq prison of Baghdad,[14] after being transferred from one prison to another for several years.[19] He may have been poisoned by order of the Abbasid caliph Harun,
Al-Ma’mun ibn ar-Rashid (198-218 Α.Η./813-833 A.D.)
Was one of the greatest of the Abbasid Caliphs, and a great patron of the arts. Part of his reign was spent in Marw, his capital in Khorasan, and his rule was characterised by Persian influence. He quelled a number of disturbances and uprisings in the vast area of the Abbasid empire, and in 204 A.H./819 A.D. he was compelled to march him- self with an army to Baghdad. He also came into conflict with the Byznatines.
Al-Mu’tasim-billah ibn ar-Rashid (218-227 Α.Η./833-842 A.D.)
Was a strong and energetic ruler and a good soldier. He broke the strength of the followers of Babak in Azerbaijan, and put down several other mutinies. He also took the field several times against the Byzantines. Al-Mu’tasim is credited with the introdue tion of Turkish mercenaries into the army, and the unruly behaviour of these troops in Baghdad, and the power held by the Turkish generals, forced him to seek a new capital which he founded at the site of Samarra on the Tigris about 120 kms. north of Baghdad (221 Α.Η./836 A.D.). The best craftsn.en, builders, and architects were assembled, and the city became the most splendid in the world. Indeed the remains of Samarra’s many palaces and mosques, in particular the Great Mosque with its spiral minaret, the Malwiyah, the mosque of Abu Dulaf, and the Caliph’s Palace, stand today as reminders of the town’s past glories.
These were the years of Abbasid glory, its golden age, and towards the end of Al-
Mu’tasim’s reign political weakness and internal decay set in and sapped the strength of the Abbasid empire. The last of the Abbasid Caliphs of this golden age was the 9th, Al-Wathiq-billah (227 A.H. 842 A.D.), after whom came a line of six caliphs who con tinued to reside in Samarra; from their reigns date some of the city’s magnificent buildings mosques, palaces, schools, and scientific institutions. In ca. 276 A.H./889 A.D. the capital was transferred back to Baghdad from Samarra by the Caliph Al-Mu’tamid- ala-Allah; by this time we are in the middle of the so-called Second Abbasid Era, which was ushered in by the reign of Al-Mutawakkil-‘ala Allah (232 A.H./847 A.D.), and saw the gradual fading of Abbasid glory. The 12 caliphs of this period no longer wielded much power, and the empire disintegrated into semi-independent provinces, in which the real power was in the hands of Turks, Persians,, and Mongol princes; in Egypt the Tulunid Dynasty took control. In Iraq itself the Caliphs’ title was respected, but they were mostly subject to the influence of the Turkish generals who controlled the armies.
The Buwayhid Dynasty (334-447 A.H./946-ADJ
Dering the Caliphate nof, Al-Mustaki-billah a dynasty known at the Buwaytids come to power, under their foundthority tad ibn Buwayh who asumed the bids came blah, and exercised full puthority (334 A.H./946 A.D.). Descendants of the San Persians, they ruled the ampire is the name of the Abbasid Caliphs who needed in Baghdad. This periodulah was the the Third Abbasid Era, and saw five Caliphs of the Bawhid Idhd-ad Dawlah was the most energetic and effective. At the appeal of the Bumph Al-Qa’im-bi-amrillah the Seljuk ruler of Iran. Tughril Beg. marshing to Baghdad Ended the Buwayhid Dynasty and began the rule of the Seljuks in Iraq.
Seljuk Dynasty (447-590 Α.Η./1055-1194 A.D.)
During this dynasty, whose period of power is called the Fourth Abbasit Era, Iraq enjoyed a new period of prosperity, signified by the flourishing of arts and seleness and the erection of new mosques and excavation of new and vital irrigation canals. The Seljuk Sultans were of Turkish stock, originally from the Ghuzz tribe which inhabited the steppes of Central Asia, and in a very short space of time made themselves masters of Iran and Iraq. The Caliphs were puppets in the hands of the Seljuk Sultana, to be deposed, killed, or replaced according to their will. The most prominent members of this dynasty were Tughril Beg, Alp Arslan and Malik Shah, under whom much was achieved in the way of progressive reforms. During this period they had to contend with the attempts of the Fatimids to extend their control to Iraq, and the crusades began.
In Mosul the constant disturbances and bloodshed obliged the Seljuk Sultan Mahmud, during the Caliphate of Al-Mustarshid-billah, to appoint a viceroy over the Province of Mosul and its adjacent territories. This was Imad-ud-Din Zangi (Atabeg), who managed to restore peace and order throughout the north of Iraq, and was the founder of the Atabegi Dynasty which ruled from Mosul under the nominal suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphate, and under the control of the Seljuks.
Atabegi Dynasty (521-660 А.Н./1127-1261 A.D.)
The term “Ata-beg” means “father of the prince” and at reterred originally to the guardian or tutor of a young Seljuk prince. The dynasty’s founder in Mosul. Imad-ed- Din Zangi, was the son of Qasim ad-Dawlah, son of Aqsunqur, a tutor of Turkish origin (521-541 A.H./1127-1146 A.D.), and a patron of many reforms. He was followed by his son Sayf-ud-Din who took particuar care to build up the army. Of the succeeding Atabegi monarchs some were weak and self-indulgent and others energetic, achieving political reforms and leaving behind them architectural monuments. It was at this time that Salah-ud-Din (feared by the crusaders as Saladin), who was born at Teerit the centre of brad. Din (feared the ene during the Caliphate of Al amrillah (571 A.H./1175 A.D.) In a ferocious battle at Hatin in 585 A.H/1187 A.D
Salah-ud-Din completely routed the crusader forces, and later captured Jerusalem of During the reign of the seventh Atabeg ruler, Al-Qahir Izz-ud-Din, the Mamluk Badr-ud-Din Lulu was acting as a minister of state and serving as tutor and guardian Badhe ruler’s four sons. After Al-Qahir’s death he began to maltreat the late king’s toldren and other members of the family, and gradually ousted them. He took the king ship for himself, and by virtue of his good relations with the Seljuk overlords and the Caliph Al-Mustansir-billah was awarded the title of ‘King of Mosul’ and the heraldic emblems to go with it (631 A.H./1234 A.D.). Badr-ud-Din Lulu was a great palron of new architecture, and a great number of Atabegi works in bricks and in the local marble and limestone. These buildings, with their decorative brickwork, comme morative inscriptions, and delicate wood carvings, marked a new high point in the annais of Islamic architecture”. Lulu’s reign lasted a long time, until the savage onslaught on Iraq of Hulaku; soon after that he died and was succeeded by his son Rukn-ud-Din Ismall (657-660 Α.Η./1258-1261 A.D.). This was the effective end of Atabegi power.
Meanwhile, in Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphs were no more than rulers in name, and they began to suffer more and more from the oppression of their Seljuk overlords During this period, the Fifth Abbasid Era, four caliphs held office, including Al. Mustansir-billah who built the Mustansiriyah College at Baghdad. However, on the fateful day of 4th Safar 656 A.H./20th February 1258 A.D., the soldiers of the Mongol armies led by Hulaku breached the walls of Baghdad and the Caliph Al-Musta’sim was put to death with his officials, and enormous numbers of the population were massacred. The city was looted and burned, and so ended the Abbasid Caliphate, and the era of the Ilkhanids began.
Despite its pitiful conclusion, it should not be forgotten that the years of the Ab- basid Caliphate, despite foreign domination, made Iraq the continuing home of sciences, arts, and literature. Even after the death the last Caliph, Baghdad remained a centre of civilization, attracting scholars and the lovers of art. However, the rule of the Mongol Hulaku was disastrous for Iraq in general, and the ensuing disruption of life and con tinuing insecurity wreaked great damage in social, economic and especially agricultural affairs, the deterioration lasting through the Ilkhanid period into later dynasties.
The Ilkhanid State (656-738 A.H./1258-1338 A.D.)
The Mongol Ilkhanid state in Iraq was inaugurated by the invasion of the country by Hulaku, son of Tuluy Khan, who took the title Il-Khan, and took Baghdad in 656 A.H./ 1258 A.D. Appointing a vassal ruler in Baghdad, Hulaku himself continued with his conquests westwards. After his death his son Abaqa Khan took the throne, and made a reputation for himself as a builder and reformer. He was responsible for the rebuild- ing of the ‘Caliphs’ Mosque’ and the Suq-al-Ghazal minaret, among other undertakings. (678 A.H./1279 A.D.). Under him Ala-ad-Din Juwaini was governor of Baghdad. His reign also saw the conversion of the Tartars to Islam. Among the first converts was Hulalru’s own son, Tukudar Khan, who assumed the name of Ahmed Khan and took the title Sultan (681-683 A.H./1282-1284 A.D.). Due to intrigues between the governors and princes, conditions in Iraq remained unstable, and in 683 A.H./1284 A.D. Arghon, the son of Abaqa, revolted but met his death in the revolt. Thereafter several other kings
followed in quick succession, and all were more or less weak and irresponsible malers Thus it was that after 80 years the Ilkhanid Dyunasty in Iraq fell to the rising umb tons of the founder of the Jalayrid Dynasty.
Jalayrid State (739-814 A.H./1338-1411 A.D.) The Jalayrid state was founded by Shaikh Hasan al-Jalayri, a Mongolian who catne
over originally from Persia andhanatoline He seized the opportunity afforded hutho cathe osternal dissensions of the khanidepelers, and in 738 AH/1338 A.D. occupied Bath dnd and declared himself saltarindependent sovereign with Baghdad as his wind Ragh successor was his son, As-Sultan Shaikh Muizz-ed-Din Uwais, who expanded the state suontiers and appointed as governor of Baghdad his Mamluk Amin-ed-Din Mirjan, who built the Khan Mirjan as part of the endowment of the nearby Mosque and College After the death of Uwais the state was once more paralysed by domestic disputes between his sons, and in the reign of Sultan Ahmad ibn Muizz-ed-Din Uwais, Timurlang descen from Turkestan and invaded Iraq (795 A.H./1392 A.D.) Ahmad’s resistance to the invasion was swept aside, and Baghdad once again suffered sack and ruin. The Sultan took re fuge in Egypt, where he was given a friendly reception by king Dhahir Barquq, and dur ing his exile he assembled a strong army and marching on Baghdad recaptured the city. However, he was soon ousted again by Timurlang, and two years later he returned and with the assistance of the Turkoman ruler Qara Yusuf he regained the city. For a third time Timurlang descended on Baghdad, and thoroughly destroyed its public build ings and massacred its inhabitants. Ahmad himself escaped to Aleppo, and although he returned once more to Baghdad he found himself on bad terms with his former ally Qara Yusuf, and retired to Egypt. Later, in face of another Timurid advance co Baghdad, Qara Yusuf himself followed Ahmad’s example and set off for Egypt.
During Jalayrid period Baghdad was several times devastated by floods and pla gues which greatly reduced the population. After the death of Timurlang (807 A.H./1401 A.D.) Ahmed and the Turkoman Qara Yusuf continued their struggle in Azerbaijan, anil finally Qara Yusuf succeeded in taking Tabriz and Ahmad was unthroned and put to death.
The Black Sheep and White Sheep States (813-914 A.H./1410-1508 A.D.)
The Turkoman Black Sheep state was founded by Qara Yusuf on the death of Ahmad ibn Muizz-ed-Din in Tabriz (813 A.H./1410 A.D.). He was followed by the remainder of his dynasty, including Jihan Shah, in a period of great disturbances and internal Struggles from which Iraq suffered much. In 874 A.H./1470 A.D. power passed to th Dynasty of the White Sheep when Sultan Hasan at-Tawil al-Turkomani descended ima Diyar Bakir and defeated the Black Sheep Dynasty. He and his successors mainl a precarious hold on the count Black forty years, when they were finally defeated by tha Persian ruler Shah Ismail assafai fwho gained control of the whole northe Dynasty and then captured BaIsmail as-Safawi, who founding the great Satawid in Iran.
Safawid State in Iraq (914-941 A.H./1508-1534A.D)
The renowned founder of this dynasty was Shah Ismail ibn Junaid ibn ash-Shaikh Safa-ed-Din al Ardabili, who was held in great respect as a leading exponent of Sufic doo trines. After his death in 930 A.H./1523 A.D., his son Tahmasp I succeeded to the throne and he had a long reign marked by constant warfare and dissension. Tahmasp defeated a mutiny staged by Prince Dhulfiqar with the assistance of Sulaiman al-Qanuni, the Tura ish Sultan, and had Dhulfiqar himself put to death. This greatly angered Sulaiman who dispatched his general Ibrahim Pasha at the head of a large army against Baghdad, which was occupied by him in 941 A.H./1534 A.D. Thereafter Sulaiman al-Qanuni visited Bagh dad and other parts of Iraq, and ordered the initiation of measures of reform. However, the Turkish governors of Iraq engaged in hostilities and intrigues and neglected their duties, bringing great hardship on Iraq. Then the police chief As-Subashi Bakir appealed to the Safawid Shah Abbas for assistance, and Abbas met his appeal with a well-equip ped army and recaptured Baghdad (1033A.H./1623 A.D.). There followeri several more Safawid rulers, while the Turks prepared for the final show-down. In 1047 A.H./1637 A.D. the Turkish Sultan Murad IV invaded Iraq, and after taking Mosul Kerkuk. Erbil, and Sulaimaniyah he entered Baghdad in 1049 A.H./1639 A.D., thus found ing the Ottoman era in Iraq. The huge cannon called Toab Abu Khizrama with which Murad attacked and took Baghdad is still in an excellent state of preservation and is displayed in the centre of Maidan Square near the Ministry of Defence, Baghdad.
Ottoman Rule in Iraq (1049-1335 Α.Η./1639-1917 A.D.)
The Ottoman Empire was founded in Anatolia in 699 A.H./1299 A.D. by the O toman Ghazi ibn Ertoghrul. The Ottomans were in origin Turkoman tribes who were subject to the rule of the Turkish Seljuks, and their dynasty numbers 37 sultans. The early Ottoman sultans succeeded in enlarging the empire’s territory to cover the western parts of Asia Minor, and came into conflict with the Byzantines. In 1435 A.D. the Sulfan Muhammad II (The Conqueror) took Constantinople itself which became the capital of the empire. Later the Ottomans took their conquests into the Balkan states and North Africa, and south and east into the Near Eastern countries including Iraq
Some mention has already been made of the struggle between the Ottomans and the Safawid Dynasty. In the north of Iraq Safawid rule was terminated by Sultan Selim I, and he also conquered the Mamluk dynasties of Syria and Egypt. In 941 A.H/1531 A.D. his son, Sulaiman al-Qanuni, took Baghdad, and so initiated Iraq’s First Otto- man Era. The subsequent re-assertion of Safawid authority under Shah Abbas, and the re-taking of Baghdad by Sultan Murad IV, have already been recounted. After the establishment of the Second Ottoman Era in 1049 A.H./1639 A.D. Murad IV appointed the first Governor (wali) of Iraq, and thereafter Iraq’s status as a province of the Otto man Empire remained constant until Baghdad fell to the British in 1917 A.D. During this period the country suffered from shameful neglect and weak administration. The central authonity was in permanent conflict with disaffected elements, and unable to cope
with the effects of natural catastrophes. A contstant threat was posed by the Persian empire to the East, but in 1165 A.H./1751 A.D. power in Iraq was assumed by the Mamluk dynasty, who ruled in the name of the Ottoman Sultans. The last of the Mam- luk governors, who included Sulaiman Pasha, was the celebrated and powerful Daud Pasha. His strong personality and independent policies were a source of concern to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II, who decided to send a strong army against Iraq to depose the Pasha. He was aided meanwhile by high floods and devastating plagues which afflicted Baghdad, and in 1247 A.H./1831 A.D. Daud Pasha was forced to surrender ending the Mamluk rule in Iraq.
From now on direct Ottoman rule was restored in Iraq, and governors were ap- pointed from Constantinople, with allegiance to the Sultans in person. Within Iraq itself dissension and intrigues continued, particularly between the governor himself, the governor of Mosul (Injeishare Aga) and the the Arab tribes. Due to the difficulty and delay in communication with Constantinople, the governor was not in a position to control the situation with the decisive and energetic policies it demanded. During the same time the Ottoman Empire began to feel the interference of foreign powers, in commercial and other spheres.
In 1869 A.D. the governorship passed to Midhat Pasha, who undertook many serious measures of reform and modernisation during his short period of office. He inaugurated schools, established factories, and drew up plans for the pacification and settlement of the tribes. Later, after the accession of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II, the governor Nadhim Pasha was appointed to Baghdad (1317 A.H./1910 A.D.). He also initiated works of reform and reconstruction, especially in Baghdad.
During World War I, Iraq was the scene of fierce fighting between the Turkish and British armies; in 1917 A.D. the British entered Baghdad, and in 1918 A.D. took Mosul. The revolution which led to the liberation of Iraq broke out on Shawwal 13th, 1338 A.H./June 30th, 1920 A.D., and the country won its independence with the formation on Dhil-Hijja 18th, 1339 A.H./August 23rd 1921 of the first Iraqi national government.